The History of Animal Experimentation
The first observations of significance to modern science were made in the 1600s, when William Harvey used animals to observe and describe the blood circulatory system. In the following century, Stephen Hales used a horse to demonstrate the measurement of blood pressure, and Antoine Lavoisier used a calorimeter and a guinea pig to demonstrate that respiration was a type of combustion. In the late nineteenth century Emil von Behring isolated diphtheria toxin and used a mixture of toxin and anti-toxin to protect guinea pigs from developing the disease. Around fifteen years later he had developed a vaccine which could be used in humans. In the 1940s and 1950s, a group of researchers used streptomycin to cure tuberculosis in guinea pigs. These experiments were followed by human trials which demonstrated that antibiotics could halt and even reverse the spread of the disease.
Benefits From Experimenting On AnimalsCancer - New cancer drugs account for 50-60 percent of the
gains we have made in cancer survival rates since 1975. Overall, these medicines have contributed a remarkable 10.7% of the increase in life expectancy at birth in the United States. Until recently, surgery, radiation therapy and chemotherapy were the dominant treatments for cancer. But now, thanks in large part to animal-based research, there is a new molecular and genetic understanding of tumor biology, leading to treatments that set out to more directly kill cancer cells, which are molecularly different from normal cells. Also includes Breast Cancer, Childhood Leukemia and Lung Cancer. Animal experimentation also helps with HIV/AIDS, Heart Disease/Stroke, Diabetes, Parkinson’s Disease, Hepatitis C, Birth Defects, Bioterrorism Medical Countermeasures, Epilepsy, Spinal Cord Injuries, and Cystic Fibrosis. Problems of Experimenting On Animals Nine out of ten drugs that appear promising in animal studies go on to fail in human clinical trials. Indeed, because of the inherent
differences between animals and humans, drugs and procedures that work in animals often end up failing in humans. According to Health and Human Services Secretary Mike Leavitt, “nine out of ten experimental drugs fail in clinical studies because we cannot accurately predict how they will behave in people based on laboratory and animal studies.” In fact, there have been numerous reports recently of approved drugs causing serious and unexpected health problems, leading the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to remove the products from the market or require black box warnings on their labels. The FDA has reported that “adverse events associated with drugs are the single leading contributor to preventable patient injury, and may cost the lives of up to 100,000 Americans, account for more than 3 million hospital admissions, and increase the nation’s hospitalization bill by up to $17 billion each year.” The agency estimates that drug-related injuries outside the hospital add $76.6 billion to health care costs. |
The History of Human Experimentation and the Holocaust The human beings used in the experiments that made
these advancements possible. Over the last two centuries, some of these test subjects have been compensated for the damage done to their emotional and physical health, but most have not. Many have lost their lives because of the experiments they often unwillingly and sometimes even unwittingly participated in, and they of course can never be compensated for losing their most precious possession of all: Their health. (1900)
U.S Army doctors working in the Philippines infect five Filipino prisoners with plague and withhold proper nutrition to create Beriberi in 29 prisoners; four test subjects die (Merritte, et al.; Cockburn and St. Clair, eds.). |
(1915)
Dr. Joseph Goldberger, under order of the U.S. Public Health Office, produces Pellagra, a debilitating disease that affects the central
nervous system, in 12 Mississippi inmates to try to find a cure for the disease. One test subject later says that he had been through "a thousand hells." In 1935, after millions die from the disease, the director of the U.S Public Health Office would finally admit that officials had known that it was caused by a niacin deficiency for some time, but did nothing about it because it mostly affected poor African-Americans. During the Nuremberg Trials, Nazi doctors used this study to try to justify their medical experiments on concentration camp inmates (Greger; Cockburn and St. Clair, eds.).
Dr. Joseph Goldberger, under order of the U.S. Public Health Office, produces Pellagra, a debilitating disease that affects the central
nervous system, in 12 Mississippi inmates to try to find a cure for the disease. One test subject later says that he had been through "a thousand hells." In 1935, after millions die from the disease, the director of the U.S Public Health Office would finally admit that officials had known that it was caused by a niacin deficiency for some time, but did nothing about it because it mostly affected poor African-Americans. During the Nuremberg Trials, Nazi doctors used this study to try to justify their medical experiments on concentration camp inmates (Greger; Cockburn and St. Clair, eds.).
Josef "Dr. Death" Mengele
Nazi human experimentation was medical experimentation on large numbers of
people by the German Nazi regime in its concentration camps during World War II.
At Auschwitz, under the direction of Dr. Eduard Wirths, selected inmates were
subjected to various experiments which were supposedly designed to help German
military personnel in combat situations, to aid in the recovery of military
personnel that had been injured, and to advance the racial ideology backed by
the Third Reich.
Experiments on twin children in concentration camps were created to show the
similarities and differences in the genetics and eugenics of twins, as well as
to see if the human body can be unnaturally manipulated. The central leader of
the experiments was Dr. Josef Mengele, who performed experiments on over 1,500
sets of imprisoned twins, of which fewer than 200 individuals survived the
studies. Dr. Mengele organized the testing of genetics in twins. The twins were
arranged by age and sex and kept in barracks in between the test, which ranged
from the injection of different chemicals into the eyes of the twins to see if
it would change their colors to literally sewing the twins together in hopes of
creating conjoined twins.
In 1942 the Luftwaffe conducted experiments to learn how to treat
hypothermia. One study forced subjects to endure a tank of ice water for up to
three hours (see image above). Another study placed prisoners naked in the open
for several hours with temperatures below freezing. The experimenters assessed
different ways of rewarming survivors.
From about July 1942 to about September 1943, experiments to investigate the
effectiveness of sulfonamide, a synthetic antimicrobial agent, were conducted at
Ravensbrück. Wounds inflicted on the subjects were infected with bacteria such
as Streptococcus, gas gangrene, and tetanus. Circulation of blood was
interrupted by tying off blood vessels at both ends of the wound to create a
condition similar to that of a battlefield wound. Infection was aggravated by
forcing wood shavings and ground glass into the wounds. The infection was
treated with sulfonamide and other drugs to determine their effectiveness.
people by the German Nazi regime in its concentration camps during World War II.
At Auschwitz, under the direction of Dr. Eduard Wirths, selected inmates were
subjected to various experiments which were supposedly designed to help German
military personnel in combat situations, to aid in the recovery of military
personnel that had been injured, and to advance the racial ideology backed by
the Third Reich.
Experiments on twin children in concentration camps were created to show the
similarities and differences in the genetics and eugenics of twins, as well as
to see if the human body can be unnaturally manipulated. The central leader of
the experiments was Dr. Josef Mengele, who performed experiments on over 1,500
sets of imprisoned twins, of which fewer than 200 individuals survived the
studies. Dr. Mengele organized the testing of genetics in twins. The twins were
arranged by age and sex and kept in barracks in between the test, which ranged
from the injection of different chemicals into the eyes of the twins to see if
it would change their colors to literally sewing the twins together in hopes of
creating conjoined twins.
In 1942 the Luftwaffe conducted experiments to learn how to treat
hypothermia. One study forced subjects to endure a tank of ice water for up to
three hours (see image above). Another study placed prisoners naked in the open
for several hours with temperatures below freezing. The experimenters assessed
different ways of rewarming survivors.
From about July 1942 to about September 1943, experiments to investigate the
effectiveness of sulfonamide, a synthetic antimicrobial agent, were conducted at
Ravensbrück. Wounds inflicted on the subjects were infected with bacteria such
as Streptococcus, gas gangrene, and tetanus. Circulation of blood was
interrupted by tying off blood vessels at both ends of the wound to create a
condition similar to that of a battlefield wound. Infection was aggravated by
forcing wood shavings and ground glass into the wounds. The infection was
treated with sulfonamide and other drugs to determine their effectiveness.
Work Cited
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<http://www.amprogress.org/animal-research-benefits>.
"Human medical experimentation in the United States: The shocking true history of modern medicine and psychiatry (1833-1965)." Natural health news. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 Mar. 2013.
Lloyd, Emma , and Leigh A. Zaykoski. "A Brief Overview of the History of Animal Testing & Experimentation." Find Science & Technology
Articles, Education Lesson Plans, Tech Tips, Computer Hardware & Software Reviews, News and More at Bright Hub. Bright Hub, 23 Nov. 2008. Web. 3 Mar. 2013.
"Problems with Animal Research-The American Anti-Vivisection Society (AAVS)." Working to end the use of animals in science-The American Anti-Vivisection Society (AAVS). American Anti-Vivisection Society, n.d. Web. 3 Mar. 2013.
study, the end of the, only 74 of the test subjects were still alive. Twenty-eight of the men had died directly of syphilis, 100 were dead of related
complications, 40 of their wives had been infected, and 19 of their children had been born with congenital syphilis.. "Top 10 Evil Human Experiments - Listverse." Top 10 Lists - Listverse. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 Mar. 2013.
<http://listverse.com/2008/03/14/top-10-evil-human-experiments/>.
"Animal Research Benefits: | Americans for Medical Progress." Americans For Medical Progress - Because Research Needs Advocates. Americans of Medical Progrees, n.d. Web. 3 Mar. 2013.
<http://www.amprogress.org/animal-research-benefits>.
"Human medical experimentation in the United States: The shocking true history of modern medicine and psychiatry (1833-1965)." Natural health news. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 Mar. 2013.
Lloyd, Emma , and Leigh A. Zaykoski. "A Brief Overview of the History of Animal Testing & Experimentation." Find Science & Technology
Articles, Education Lesson Plans, Tech Tips, Computer Hardware & Software Reviews, News and More at Bright Hub. Bright Hub, 23 Nov. 2008. Web. 3 Mar. 2013.
"Problems with Animal Research-The American Anti-Vivisection Society (AAVS)." Working to end the use of animals in science-The American Anti-Vivisection Society (AAVS). American Anti-Vivisection Society, n.d. Web. 3 Mar. 2013.
study, the end of the, only 74 of the test subjects were still alive. Twenty-eight of the men had died directly of syphilis, 100 were dead of related
complications, 40 of their wives had been infected, and 19 of their children had been born with congenital syphilis.. "Top 10 Evil Human Experiments - Listverse." Top 10 Lists - Listverse. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 Mar. 2013.
<http://listverse.com/2008/03/14/top-10-evil-human-experiments/>.